Threat To Bananas (Muz Tehdidi)<\/strong><\/h2>\n![](\"https:\/\/www.konusarakogren.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/banana.jpg\")
<\/h2>\n\nIn the 1950s, Central American commercial banana growers were facing the death of their most lucrative product, the Gros Michel banana, known as Big Mike. And now it\u2019s happening again to Big Mike\u2019s successor \u2013 the Cavendish.<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/blockquote>\n1950’lerde, Orta Amerika’daki ticari muz yeti\u015ftiricileri, en kazan\u00e7l\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcnleri olan Koca Mike nam-\u0131 di\u011fer Gros Michel muzunun \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcyle kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yayd\u0131. Ve \u015fimdi Koca Mike’\u0131n halefi Cavendish\u2019e de ayn\u0131s\u0131 oluyor.<\/p>\n
\nWith its easily transported, thick-skinned and sweet-tasting fruit, the Gros Michel banana plant dominated the plantations of Central America. United Fruit, the main grower and exporter in South America at the time, mass-produced its bananas in the most efficient way possible: it cloned shoots from the stems of plants instead of growing plants from seeds, and cultivated them in densely packed fields.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nKolay ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131, kal\u0131n kabuklu olmas\u0131 ve tatl\u0131 tad\u0131 ile Gros Michel muz bitkisi, Orta Amerika’n\u0131n tarlalar\u0131n\u0131n h\u00e2kimi oldu. O zamanlar G\u00fcney Amerika’n\u0131n ana \u00fcreticisi ve ihracat\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 olan United Fruit, muzlar\u0131n\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olan en verimli \u015fekilde seri \u00fcretti. United Fruit, tohumlardan bitki yeti\u015ftirmek yerine, s\u00fcrg\u00fcnleri bitkilerin saplar\u0131ndan klonlad\u0131 ve yo\u011fun tarlalarda yeti\u015ftirdi.<\/p>\n
\nUnfortunately, these conditions are also perfect for the spread of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, which attacks the plant\u2019s roots and prevents it from transporting water to the stem and leaves. The TR-1 strain of the fungus was resistant to crop sprays and travelled around on boots or the tyres of trucks, slowly infecting plantations across the region. In an attempt to escape the fungus, farmers abandoned infected fields, flooded them and then replanted crops somewhere else, often cutting down rainforest to do so.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nMaalesef bu ko\u015fullar Fusarium Oxysporum mantar\u0131n\u0131n yay\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in de m\u00fckemmeldi. Bitkinin k\u00f6klerine sald\u0131ran ve g\u00f6vdeye ve yapraklara su ta\u015f\u0131mas\u0131n\u0131 engelleyen Mantar\u0131n TR-1 t\u00fcr\u00fc, mahsul spreylerine kar\u015f\u0131 diren\u00e7liydi ve botlar veya kamyon lastikleri \u00fczerinde dola\u015farak, b\u00f6lgedeki tarlalar\u0131 yava\u015f\u00e7a enfekte etti. Mantardan ka\u00e7mak i\u00e7in \u00e7ift\u00e7iler, enfekte olmu\u015f tarlalar\u0131 terk ettiler, sel atl\u0131nda b\u0131rakt\u0131lar ve daha sonra ekinlerini ba\u015fka bir yere diktiler ve bunu yapmak i\u00e7inse genellikle ya\u011fmur ormanlar\u0131n\u0131 kestiler.<\/p>\n
\nTheir efforts failed. So, instead, they searched for a variety of banana that the fungus didn\u2019t affect. They found the Cavendish, as it was called, in the greenhouse of a British duke. It wasn\u2019t as well suited to shipping as the Gros Michel, but its bananas tasted good enough to keep consumers happy. Most importantly, TR-1 didn\u2019t seem to affect it. In a few years, United Fruit had saved itself from bankruptcy by filling its plantations with thousands of the new plants, copying the same monoculture growing conditions Gros Michel had thrived in.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\u00c7abalar\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z oldu. Bunun yerine, mantar\u0131n etkilemedi\u011fi \u00e7e\u015fitli muzlar\u0131 arad\u0131lar. Bir \u0130ngiliz d\u00fck\u00fcn\u00fcn seras\u0131nda Cavendish’i buldular. Nakliye a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan Gros Michel kadar uygun de\u011fildi, ancak muzlar\u0131 t\u00fcketicileri mutlu edecek kadar lezzetliydi. En \u00f6nemlisi, TR-1 onu etkilemiyor gibiydi. Birka\u00e7 y\u0131l i\u00e7inde United Fruit, tarlalar\u0131n\u0131 binlerce yeni bitkiyle doldurarak ve Gros Michel’in b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ayn\u0131 tek k\u00fclt\u00fcrl\u00fc yeti\u015ftirme ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131 kopyalayarak kendisini iflastan kurtarm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n
\nWhile the operation was a huge success for the Latin American industry, the Cavendish banana itself is far from safe. In 2014, South East Asia, another major banana producer, exported four million tons of Cavendish bananas. But, in 2015, its exports had dropped by 46 per cent thanks to a combination of another strain of the fungus, TR-4, and bad weather.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nLatin Amerika end\u00fcstrisi i\u00e7in operasyon b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ba\u015far\u0131 olsa da Cavendish muzu g\u00fcvenli olmaktan \u00e7ok uzakt\u0131. 2014 y\u0131l\u0131nda, bir ba\u015fka b\u00fcy\u00fck muz \u00fcreticisi olan G\u00fcney Do\u011fu Asya b\u00f6lgesi, d\u00f6rt milyon ton Cavendish muzu ihra\u00e7 etti. Ancak 2015 y\u0131l\u0131nda, mantar\u0131n ba\u015fka bir t\u00fcr\u00fc olan TR-4 ve k\u00f6t\u00fc hava ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n birle\u015fimi sayesinde ihracat\u0131 y\u00fczde 46 d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.<\/p>\n
\nGrowing practices in South East Asia haven\u2019t helped matters. Growers can\u2019t always afford the expensive lab-based methods to clone plants from shoots without spreading the disease. Also, they often aren\u2019t strict enough about cleaning farm equipment and quarantining infected fields. As a result, the fungus has spread to Australia, the Middle East and Mozambique \u2013 and Latin America, heavily dependent on its monoculture Cavendish crops, could easily be next.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nYeti\u015ftirme \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 G\u00fcney Do\u011fu Asya’da sorunlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zmedi. Yeti\u015ftiriciler, hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 yaymadan bitkileri s\u00fcrg\u00fcnlerden klonlamak i\u00e7in pahal\u0131 laboratuvar temelli y\u00f6ntemleri her zaman kar\u015f\u0131layamazlar. Ayr\u0131ca, \u00e7iftlik ekipmanlar\u0131n\u0131 temizleme ve vir\u00fcsl\u00fc tarlalar\u0131 karantinaya alma konusunda genellikle yeterince ilgili de\u011fillerdi. Sonu\u00e7 olarak, mantar Avustralya’ya, Orta Do\u011fu’ya ve Mozambik’e yay\u0131ld\u0131. Ve tek k\u00fclt\u00fcrl\u00fc Cavendish mahsullerine b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 olan Latin Amerika, kolayca s\u0131radaki b\u00f6lge olabilir.<\/p>\n
\nRacing against the inevitable, scientists are working on solving the problem by genetically modifying the Cavendish with genes from TR-4-resistant banana species. Researchers at the Queensland University of Technology have successfully grown two kinds of modified plant which have remained resistant for three years so far. But some experts think this is just a sophisticated version of the same temporary solution the original Cavendish provided. If the new bananas are planted in the same monocultures as the Cavendish and the Gros Michel before it, the risk is that another strain of the disease may rise up to threaten the modified plants too.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nKa\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olana kar\u015f\u0131 yar\u0131\u015fan bilim adamlar\u0131, Cavendish’i TR-4’e diren\u00e7li muz t\u00fcrlerinden gelen genlerle genetik olarak de\u011fi\u015ftirerek sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlar. Queensland Teknoloji \u00dcniversitesi’ndeki ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, \u015fimdiye kadar \u00fc\u00e7 y\u0131l boyunca diren\u00e7li kalan iki t\u00fcr modifiye bitkiyi ba\u015far\u0131yla b\u00fcy\u00fctt\u00fcler. Ancak baz\u0131 uzmanlar bunun, orijinal Cavendish’in sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ayn\u0131 ge\u00e7ici \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcn yaln\u0131zca geli\u015fmi\u015f bir versiyonu oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyor. Yeni muzlar, daha \u00f6nceki Cavendish ve Gros Michel ile ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde tek k\u00fclt\u00fcr ile ekilirse, hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131n ba\u015fka bir t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn, de\u011fi\u015ftirilmi\u015f bitkileri de tehdit etmek i\u00e7in y\u00fckselmesi riski vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n
5 Horror Film Cliches (5 Korku Filmi Kli\u015fesi)<\/h2>\n
![](\"https:\/\/www.konusarakogren.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/horror-film.jpg\")
<\/p>\n
\nSince almost the beginning of cinema, we have had scary films. Of all the genres that exist, horror is perhaps one of the most conventional. Many horror films rely on specific plot devices, also called tropes, to make their audience frightened. When a trope is used too much, it can become a clich\u00e9. But when used well, it can really make us jump out of our skin. Here are some of the most used, and perhaps abused, clich\u00e9s in horror films.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nNeredeyse sineman\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndan beri korku filmleri vard\u0131. Var olan t\u00fcm t\u00fcrler aras\u0131nda korku, belki de en geleneksel olanlardan biridir. Bir\u00e7ok korku filmi, izleyicilerini korkutmak i\u00e7in mecazi kurgu olarak da adland\u0131r\u0131lan spesifik olay \u00f6rg\u00fclerine g\u00fcvenir. Bir mecazi kurgu \u00e7ok kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda kli\u015fe haline gelebilir. Ancak iyi kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, yerimizden f\u0131rlamam\u0131za sebep olabilir. \u0130\u015fte korku filmlerinde en \u00e7ok kullan\u0131lan ve belki de suistimal edilen kli\u015felerden baz\u0131lar\u0131.<\/p>\n
\nNo matter what kind of house it is, the basement is a scary place in horror films. That’s usually where something is hiding or where the evil psychopath has hidden their tools. Basements are always dark and often damp. You can only reach them by a narrow staircase. And basements are always creepy, even when there isn’t anything down there.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nNe t\u00fcr bir ev olursa olsun, bodrum korku filmlerinde korkutucu bir yerdir. Genellikle bir \u015feylerin sakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 veya k\u00f6t\u00fc psikopatlar\u0131n aletlerini saklad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yer buras\u0131d\u0131r. Bodrumlar her zaman karanl\u0131k ve genellikle nemlidir. Bodruma sadece dar bir merdivenden ula\u015fabilirsiniz. Ve bodrumlar, a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da hi\u00e7bir \u015fey olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bile her zaman \u00fcrk\u00fct\u00fcc\u00fcd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n
\nIn older horror films, when protagonists were in desperation, it was difficult or impossible for them to call for help or call the police. Mobile phones have made that situation a bit less believable now. What’s the solution to maintain suspense? No phone coverage! If you’re a hero in a horror film, it’s almost certain that at a key moment, just when you absolutely need to call for help, you will not have any coverage at all. Or your phone battery will die just as you are making the call. Or both.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nEski korku filmlerinde, kahramanlar \u00e7aresizlik i\u00e7indeyken, yard\u0131m \u00e7a\u011f\u0131rmalar\u0131 ya da polisi aramak zor ya da imkans\u0131zd\u0131. Cep telefonlar\u0131 bu durumu \u015fimdi biraz daha az inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 hale getiriyor. Peki gerginli\u011fi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmenin \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc nedir? Telefonun \u00e7ekmemesi! Bir korku filminde ba\u015frolseniz, en \u00f6nemli anda, tam da yard\u0131m \u00e7a\u011f\u0131rman\u0131z gerekti\u011finde, hi\u00e7bir \u015fekilde telefonunuzun \u00e7ekmeyece\u011fi neredeyse kesindir. Veya tam aramay\u0131 yaparken telefonunuzun \u015farj\u0131 bitecektir. Ya da her ikisi de.<\/p>\n
\nHorror films love uninhabited places. This could be an abandoned hospital, a scary empty house or a ghost town. There’s something about lonely, empty places. What was it like when people lived there? Why did they leave? Maybe it’s also that they are so quiet, which can be very scary too. Of course, abandoned places are also handy for horror film directors in that it’s more believable that you will have no phone coverage there either.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nKorku filmleri \u0131ss\u0131z yerleri sever. Bu terk edilmi\u015f bir hastane, korkun\u00e7 bir bo\u015f ev veya hayalet bir kasaba olabilir. Yaln\u0131z, bo\u015f yerler \u00e7ok ilgi \u00e7ekicidir. \u0130nsanlar orada ya\u015farken nas\u0131ld\u0131? Neden ayr\u0131ld\u0131lar? Belki de \u00e7ok sessiz olduklar\u0131ndand\u0131r, bu da \u00e7ok korkutucu olabilir. Tabii ki, terk edilmi\u015f yerler korku filmi y\u00f6netmenleri i\u00e7in de kullan\u0131\u015fl\u0131d\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc orada telefonunuzun \u00e7ekmemesi daha inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\nThe hero has been driving for hours. It’s night-time and it’s beginning to rain. Suddenly he sees a person on the side of the road. Maybe the company will keep him awake? In horror films, giving anybody a ride is asking for trouble. The hero always does it, and it always ends badly.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nBa\u015frol saatlerce araba kullan\u0131yor. Gece oldu ve ya\u011fmur ya\u011fmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Birden yolun kenar\u0131nda bir adam g\u00f6r\u00fcr. Belki de e\u015flik etmek onu uyan\u0131k tutabilir? Korku filmlerinde birini araban\u0131za almak bela aramakt\u0131r. Ba\u015frol bunu her zaman yapar ve sonu her zaman k\u00f6t\u00fc biter.<\/p>\n
\nThis horror film clich\u00e9 was especially popular with horror films of the late 20th century. It starts with a group of teenagers all enjoying themselves, and it ends with everyone dead except one girl. At the beginning the girl is usually innocent, shy and not particularly strong. By the end, she has become the toughest and most resourceful person in the world. The last girl almost always wins in the end.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nBu korku filmi kli\u015fesi, \u00f6zellikle 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131ndaki korku filmlerinde pop\u00fclerdi. Bir grup gencin e\u011flenmesiyle ba\u015flar ve bir k\u0131z\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda herkesin \u00f6lmesiyle biter. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta k\u0131z genellikle masum, utanga\u00e7t\u0131r ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc de\u011fildir. Sonlara do\u011fru, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en sert ve en becerikli insan\u0131 olur. Sona kalan k\u0131z neredeyse her zaman sonunda kazan\u0131r.<\/p>\n
How Humans Evolved Language (\u0130nsanlar Dili Nas\u0131l Geli\u015ftirdi)<\/h2>\n
![](\"https:\/\/www.konusarakogren.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/language.jpg\")
<\/p>\n
\nThanks to the field of linguistics we know much about the development of the 5,000 plus languages in existence today. We can describe their grammar and pronunciation and see how their spoken and written forms have changed over time. For example, we understand the origins of the Indo-European group of languages, which includes Norwegian, Hindi and English, and can trace them back to tribes in eastern Europe in about 3000 BC.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nDilbilim alan\u0131 sayesinde, bug\u00fcn var olan 5.000’den fazla dilin geli\u015fimi hakk\u0131nda \u00e7ok \u015fey biliyoruz. Dilbilgilerini ve telaffuzlar\u0131n\u0131 tan\u0131mlayabilir ve s\u00f6zl\u00fc ve yaz\u0131l\u0131 bi\u00e7imlerinin zaman i\u00e7inde nas\u0131l de\u011fi\u015fti\u011fini g\u00f6rebiliriz. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Norve\u00e7\u00e7e, Hint\u00e7e ve \u0130ngilizceyi i\u00e7eren Hint-Avrupa dil grubunun k\u00f6kenlerini anlayabiliyor ve onlar\u0131 M\u00d6 3000’lerde Do\u011fu Avrupa’daki kabilelere kadar takip edebiliyoruz.<\/p>\n
\nSo, we have mapped out a great deal of the history of language, but there are still areas we know little about. Experts are beginning to look to the field of evolutionary biology to find out how the human species developed to be able to use language. So far, there are far more questions and half-theories than answers.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nBu sayede dil tarihinin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc belirledik, ancak hakk\u0131nda hala \u00e7ok az \u015fey bildi\u011fimiz alanlar var. Uzmanlar, insan t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn dili kullanabilmek i\u00e7in nas\u0131l geli\u015fti\u011fini \u00f6\u011frenmek i\u00e7in evrimsel biyoloji alan\u0131na bakmaya ba\u015fl\u0131yor. \u015eimdiye kadar, cevaplardan \u00e7ok daha fazla soru ve yar\u0131m teori var.<\/p>\n
\nWe know that human language is far more complex than that of even our nearest and most intelligent relatives like chimpanzees. We can express complex thoughts, convey subtle emotions and communicate about abstract concepts such as past and future. And we do this following a set of structural rules, known as grammar. Do only humans use an innate system of rules to govern the order of words? Perhaps not, as some research may suggest dolphins share this capability because they are able to recognise when these rules are broken.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\u0130nsan dilinin \u015fempanzeler gibi en yak\u0131n ve en zeki akrabalar\u0131m\u0131zdan bile \u00e7ok daha karma\u015f\u0131k oldu\u011funu biliyoruz. Karma\u015f\u0131k d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleri ifade edebilir, ince duygular\u0131 aktarabilir ve ge\u00e7mi\u015f ve gelecek gibi soyut kavramlar hakk\u0131nda ileti\u015fim kurabiliriz. Ve bunu dilbilgisi olarak bilinen bir dizi yap\u0131sal kural\u0131 izleyerek yap\u0131yoruz. Kelimelerin s\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131 y\u00f6netmek i\u00e7in sadece insanlar do\u011fu\u015ftan gelen bir kurallar sistemi mi kullan\u0131yor? Belki de hay\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar yunuslar\u0131n bu yetene\u011fi payla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu kurallar\u0131n ne zaman kullan\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 anlayabildiklerine i\u015faret ediyor.<\/p>\n
\nIf we want to know where our capability for complex language came from, we need to look at how our brains are different from other animals. This relates to more than just brain size; it is important what other things our brains can do and when and why they evolved that way. And for this there are very few physical clues; artefacts left by our ancestors don’t tell us what speech they were capable of making. One thing we can see in the remains of early humans, however, is the development of the mouth, throat and tongue. By about 100,000 years ago, humans had evolved the ability to create complex sounds. Before that, evolutionary biologists can only guess whether or not early humans communicated using more basic sounds.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nKarma\u015f\u0131k dil yetene\u011fimizin nereden geldi\u011fini bilmek istiyorsak, beynimizin di\u011fer hayvanlardan nas\u0131l farkl\u0131 oldu\u011funa bakmam\u0131z gerekir. Bu sadece beyin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden \u00e7ok daha fazlas\u0131yla ilgili, beynimizin ba\u015fka neler yapabilece\u011fi, ne zaman ve neden bu \u015fekilde geli\u015fti\u011fi de \u00f6nemlidir. Ve bunun i\u00e7in \u00e7ok az fiziksel ipucu var; atalar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 eserler, bize hangi konu\u015fmay\u0131 yapabileceklerini g\u00f6stermiyor. Eski insanlar\u0131n kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131nda g\u00f6rebildi\u011fimiz \u015feylerin biri de a\u011f\u0131z, bo\u011faz ve dilin geli\u015fimidir. Yakla\u015f\u0131k 100.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce, insanlar karma\u015f\u0131k sesler yaratma yetene\u011fini geli\u015ftirmi\u015fti. Bundan \u00f6nce, evrimsel biyologlar, ilk insanlar\u0131n daha temel sesler kullanarak ileti\u015fim kurup kurmad\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair yaln\u0131zca tahmin \u00fcretebilirler.<\/p>\n
\nAnother question is, what is it about human brains that allowed language to evolve in a way that it did not in other primates? At some point, our brains became able to make our mouths produce vowel and consonant sounds, and we developed the capacity to invent words to name things around us. These were the basic ingredients for complex language. The next change would have been to put those words into sentences, similar to the ‘protolanguage’ children use when they first learn to speak. No one knows if the next step \u2013 adding grammar to signal past, present and future, for example, or plurals and relative clauses \u2013 required a further development in the human brain or was simply a response to our increasingly civilised way of living together.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nBa\u015fka bir soru, dilin di\u011fer primatlarda olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fekilde geli\u015fmesine izin veren insan beyninin fark\u0131 nedir? Bir noktada, beynimiz a\u011fz\u0131m\u0131za sesli ve \u00fcns\u00fcz sesler \u00e7\u0131karabilecek hale geldi ve etraf\u0131m\u0131zdaki \u015feyleri adland\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kelime icat etme kabiliyeti geli\u015ftirdik. Bunlar karma\u015f\u0131k dilin temel bile\u015fenleriydi. Bir sonraki de\u011fi\u015fiklik, bu kelimeleri, \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n konu\u015fmay\u0131 ilk \u00f6\u011frendiklerinde kulland\u0131klar\u0131 ‘\u00f6n-dil’e benzer \u015fekilde c\u00fcmlelere koymak olurdu. Bir sonraki ad\u0131m\u0131n \u2013 \u00f6rne\u011fin ge\u00e7mi\u015fi, \u015fimdiyi ve gelece\u011fi i\u015faret etmek i\u00e7in dilbilgisini veya \u00e7o\u011fullar\u0131 ve ilgili yan t\u00fcmceleri eklemenin \u2013 insan beyninde daha fazla geli\u015fmeyi gerektirip gerektirmedi\u011fini veya giderek medenile\u015fen birlikte ya\u015fama tarz\u0131m\u0131za bir yan\u0131t olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kimse bilmiyor.<\/p>\n
\nBetween 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, though, we start to see the evidence of early human civilisation, through cave paintings for example; no one knows the connection between this and language. Brains didn’t suddenly get bigger, yet humans did become more complex and more intelligent. Was it using language that caused their brains to develop? Or did their more complex brains start producing language?<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nYine de 100.000 ila 50.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce, \u00f6rne\u011fin ma\u011fara resimlerinde, erken insan uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n kan\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rmeye ba\u015fl\u0131yoruz; kimse bununla dil aras\u0131ndaki ba\u011flant\u0131y\u0131 bilmiyor. Beyinler birdenbire b\u00fcy\u00fcmedi, ancak insanlar daha karma\u015f\u0131k ve daha zeki hale geldi. Beyinlerinin geli\u015fmesine neden olan dili kullanmak m\u0131yd\u0131? Yoksa daha karma\u015f\u0131k beyinleri dil \u00fcretmeye mi ba\u015flad\u0131?<\/p>\n
\nMore questions lie in looking at the influence of genetics on brain and language development. Are there genes that mutated and gave us language ability? Researchers have found a gene mutation that occurred between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, which seems to have a connection with speaking and how our brains control our mouths and face. Monkeys have a similar gene, but it did not undergo this mutation. It’s too early to say how much influence genes have on language, but one day the answers might be found in our DNA.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\nGeneti\u011fin beyin ve dil geli\u015fimi \u00fczerindeki etkisine bakmakta daha fazla soru var. Mutasyona u\u011frayan ve bize dil yetene\u011fi veren genler var m\u0131? Ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, 200.000 ila 100.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce meydana gelen, konu\u015fmayla ve beynimizin a\u011fz\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 ve y\u00fcz\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fc nas\u0131l kontrol etti\u011fiyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bir gen mutasyonu buldular. Maymunlar da benzer bir gene sahiptir, ancak bu mutasyona u\u011framam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Genlerin dil \u00fczerinde ne kadar etkisi oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek i\u00e7in hen\u00fcz \u00e7ok erken ama bir g\u00fcn cevaplar DNA’m\u0131zda bulunabilir.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce Metin \u00c7evirisinin \u00d6nemi<\/h2>\n
\u0130ngilizce metinleri anlamak ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta herkes i\u00e7in zordur. Ancak okuma ve anlama yetene\u011finizi geli\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in yapabilece\u011finiz bir\u00e7ok aktivite ve etkinlik vard\u0131r. Bunlardan birka\u00e7\u0131 kelime da\u011farc\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131z\u0131, dilbilginizi geli\u015ftirmek ve metinler \u00e7evirmektir. Metin \u00e7evirmek ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta g\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcze zor gelebilir. Ancak kendi seviyenizdeki metinleri \u00e7evirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131zda bekledi\u011finizden daha kolay oldu\u011funu g\u00f6receksiniz.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce metin \u00e7evirmeye ba\u015flay\u0131nca \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmle mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na al\u0131\u015fmaya ba\u015flars\u0131n\u0131z. Bu sayede \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmleleri okurken anlars\u0131n\u0131z. \u0130lk okuyaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131z ve \u00e7evirece\u011finiz metinler basit oldu\u011fundan dolay\u0131 \u00e7ok zorlanmadan al\u0131\u015fabilirsiniz. \u0130ngilizce mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na al\u0131\u015farak t\u00fcm \u0130ngilizce yeteneklerinizi do\u011frudan geli\u015ftirebilirsiniz. Bundan dolay\u0131 \u0130ngilizce Metin \u00e7evirmek \u00e7ok ayarl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce Metin \u00c7evirisi Nas\u0131l Yap\u0131l\u0131r?<\/strong><\/h2>\n\u0130ngilizce metin \u00e7evirmek i\u00e7in \u00f6ncelikle metni bir kere tamamen okumal\u0131s\u0131n\u0131z. Bu sayede c\u00fcmlelere ve kelimeler a\u015fina olursunuz. Metni okuduktan sonra ilk olarak bilmedi\u011finiz kelimeleri \u00f6\u011frenmelisiniz. Ard\u0131ndan \u00e7eviri yapmaya ba\u015flamal\u0131s\u0131n\u0131z.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce metin \u00e7evirmek i\u00e7in \u00f6ncelikle \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmle \u00e7evirmeyi bilmelisiniz. \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmle kurallar\u0131, T\u00fcrk\u00e7eye g\u00f6re tam tersidir. Bu y\u00fczden c\u00fcmleleri tersten \u00e7evirmelisiniz. BU mant\u0131\u011f\u0131 kavrad\u0131ktan sonra c\u00fcmle \u00e7evirmeye ba\u015flayabilirsiniz. \u00c7eviriye A1 A2 hikayelerinden ba\u015flars\u0131n\u0131z \u00e7ok rahat edersiniz.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce Metin Okuman\u0131n Yararlar\u0131<\/strong><\/h2>\n\u0130ngilizcenizi sadece tek bir y\u00f6ne odaklanarak geli\u015ftiremezsiniz. Bu y\u00fczden her yetene\u011finizi ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 geli\u015ftirmelisiniz. \u0130ngilizce dilbilgisi \u00f6\u011frendi\u011finiz gibi \u0130ngilizce kelimeler de \u00f6\u011frenmelisiniz. Bu yeteneklerinizi ayn\u0131 anda geli\u015ftirmenin en iyi yolu da \u0130ngilizce metinler okumakt\u0131r. Okudu\u011funuz hikayeler sayesinde hem dilbilgisi hem de kelime bilgisi olarak kendinizi geli\u015ftirirsiniz. Yeni c\u00fcmle yap\u0131lar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcrs\u00fcn\u00fcz, yeni kelimeler \u00f6\u011frenirsiniz, g\u00fcn i\u00e7inde kurulabilecek diyaloglara dair bilgiler edinirsiniz.<\/p>\n
<\/h2>\n\nIn the 1950s, Central American commercial banana growers were facing the death of their most lucrative product, the Gros Michel banana, known as Big Mike. And now it\u2019s happening again to Big Mike\u2019s successor \u2013 the Cavendish.<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/blockquote>\n
1950’lerde, Orta Amerika’daki ticari muz yeti\u015ftiricileri, en kazan\u00e7l\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcnleri olan Koca Mike nam-\u0131 di\u011fer Gros Michel muzunun \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcyle kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yayd\u0131. Ve \u015fimdi Koca Mike’\u0131n halefi Cavendish\u2019e de ayn\u0131s\u0131 oluyor.<\/p>\n
\nWith its easily transported, thick-skinned and sweet-tasting fruit, the Gros Michel banana plant dominated the plantations of Central America. United Fruit, the main grower and exporter in South America at the time, mass-produced its bananas in the most efficient way possible: it cloned shoots from the stems of plants instead of growing plants from seeds, and cultivated them in densely packed fields.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Kolay ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131, kal\u0131n kabuklu olmas\u0131 ve tatl\u0131 tad\u0131 ile Gros Michel muz bitkisi, Orta Amerika’n\u0131n tarlalar\u0131n\u0131n h\u00e2kimi oldu. O zamanlar G\u00fcney Amerika’n\u0131n ana \u00fcreticisi ve ihracat\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 olan United Fruit, muzlar\u0131n\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olan en verimli \u015fekilde seri \u00fcretti. United Fruit, tohumlardan bitki yeti\u015ftirmek yerine, s\u00fcrg\u00fcnleri bitkilerin saplar\u0131ndan klonlad\u0131 ve yo\u011fun tarlalarda yeti\u015ftirdi.<\/p>\n
\nUnfortunately, these conditions are also perfect for the spread of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense, which attacks the plant\u2019s roots and prevents it from transporting water to the stem and leaves. The TR-1 strain of the fungus was resistant to crop sprays and travelled around on boots or the tyres of trucks, slowly infecting plantations across the region. In an attempt to escape the fungus, farmers abandoned infected fields, flooded them and then replanted crops somewhere else, often cutting down rainforest to do so.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Maalesef bu ko\u015fullar Fusarium Oxysporum mantar\u0131n\u0131n yay\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in de m\u00fckemmeldi. Bitkinin k\u00f6klerine sald\u0131ran ve g\u00f6vdeye ve yapraklara su ta\u015f\u0131mas\u0131n\u0131 engelleyen Mantar\u0131n TR-1 t\u00fcr\u00fc, mahsul spreylerine kar\u015f\u0131 diren\u00e7liydi ve botlar veya kamyon lastikleri \u00fczerinde dola\u015farak, b\u00f6lgedeki tarlalar\u0131 yava\u015f\u00e7a enfekte etti. Mantardan ka\u00e7mak i\u00e7in \u00e7ift\u00e7iler, enfekte olmu\u015f tarlalar\u0131 terk ettiler, sel atl\u0131nda b\u0131rakt\u0131lar ve daha sonra ekinlerini ba\u015fka bir yere diktiler ve bunu yapmak i\u00e7inse genellikle ya\u011fmur ormanlar\u0131n\u0131 kestiler.<\/p>\n
\nTheir efforts failed. So, instead, they searched for a variety of banana that the fungus didn\u2019t affect. They found the Cavendish, as it was called, in the greenhouse of a British duke. It wasn\u2019t as well suited to shipping as the Gros Michel, but its bananas tasted good enough to keep consumers happy. Most importantly, TR-1 didn\u2019t seem to affect it. In a few years, United Fruit had saved itself from bankruptcy by filling its plantations with thousands of the new plants, copying the same monoculture growing conditions Gros Michel had thrived in.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
\u00c7abalar\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z oldu. Bunun yerine, mantar\u0131n etkilemedi\u011fi \u00e7e\u015fitli muzlar\u0131 arad\u0131lar. Bir \u0130ngiliz d\u00fck\u00fcn\u00fcn seras\u0131nda Cavendish’i buldular. Nakliye a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan Gros Michel kadar uygun de\u011fildi, ancak muzlar\u0131 t\u00fcketicileri mutlu edecek kadar lezzetliydi. En \u00f6nemlisi, TR-1 onu etkilemiyor gibiydi. Birka\u00e7 y\u0131l i\u00e7inde United Fruit, tarlalar\u0131n\u0131 binlerce yeni bitkiyle doldurarak ve Gros Michel’in b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ayn\u0131 tek k\u00fclt\u00fcrl\u00fc yeti\u015ftirme ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131 kopyalayarak kendisini iflastan kurtarm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n
\nWhile the operation was a huge success for the Latin American industry, the Cavendish banana itself is far from safe. In 2014, South East Asia, another major banana producer, exported four million tons of Cavendish bananas. But, in 2015, its exports had dropped by 46 per cent thanks to a combination of another strain of the fungus, TR-4, and bad weather.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Latin Amerika end\u00fcstrisi i\u00e7in operasyon b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ba\u015far\u0131 olsa da Cavendish muzu g\u00fcvenli olmaktan \u00e7ok uzakt\u0131. 2014 y\u0131l\u0131nda, bir ba\u015fka b\u00fcy\u00fck muz \u00fcreticisi olan G\u00fcney Do\u011fu Asya b\u00f6lgesi, d\u00f6rt milyon ton Cavendish muzu ihra\u00e7 etti. Ancak 2015 y\u0131l\u0131nda, mantar\u0131n ba\u015fka bir t\u00fcr\u00fc olan TR-4 ve k\u00f6t\u00fc hava ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n birle\u015fimi sayesinde ihracat\u0131 y\u00fczde 46 d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.<\/p>\n
\nGrowing practices in South East Asia haven\u2019t helped matters. Growers can\u2019t always afford the expensive lab-based methods to clone plants from shoots without spreading the disease. Also, they often aren\u2019t strict enough about cleaning farm equipment and quarantining infected fields. As a result, the fungus has spread to Australia, the Middle East and Mozambique \u2013 and Latin America, heavily dependent on its monoculture Cavendish crops, could easily be next.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Yeti\u015ftirme \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 G\u00fcney Do\u011fu Asya’da sorunlar\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zmedi. Yeti\u015ftiriciler, hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 yaymadan bitkileri s\u00fcrg\u00fcnlerden klonlamak i\u00e7in pahal\u0131 laboratuvar temelli y\u00f6ntemleri her zaman kar\u015f\u0131layamazlar. Ayr\u0131ca, \u00e7iftlik ekipmanlar\u0131n\u0131 temizleme ve vir\u00fcsl\u00fc tarlalar\u0131 karantinaya alma konusunda genellikle yeterince ilgili de\u011fillerdi. Sonu\u00e7 olarak, mantar Avustralya’ya, Orta Do\u011fu’ya ve Mozambik’e yay\u0131ld\u0131. Ve tek k\u00fclt\u00fcrl\u00fc Cavendish mahsullerine b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 olan Latin Amerika, kolayca s\u0131radaki b\u00f6lge olabilir.<\/p>\n
\nRacing against the inevitable, scientists are working on solving the problem by genetically modifying the Cavendish with genes from TR-4-resistant banana species. Researchers at the Queensland University of Technology have successfully grown two kinds of modified plant which have remained resistant for three years so far. But some experts think this is just a sophisticated version of the same temporary solution the original Cavendish provided. If the new bananas are planted in the same monocultures as the Cavendish and the Gros Michel before it, the risk is that another strain of the disease may rise up to threaten the modified plants too.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olana kar\u015f\u0131 yar\u0131\u015fan bilim adamlar\u0131, Cavendish’i TR-4’e diren\u00e7li muz t\u00fcrlerinden gelen genlerle genetik olarak de\u011fi\u015ftirerek sorunu \u00e7\u00f6zmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlar. Queensland Teknoloji \u00dcniversitesi’ndeki ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, \u015fimdiye kadar \u00fc\u00e7 y\u0131l boyunca diren\u00e7li kalan iki t\u00fcr modifiye bitkiyi ba\u015far\u0131yla b\u00fcy\u00fctt\u00fcler. Ancak baz\u0131 uzmanlar bunun, orijinal Cavendish’in sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ayn\u0131 ge\u00e7ici \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fcn yaln\u0131zca geli\u015fmi\u015f bir versiyonu oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyor. Yeni muzlar, daha \u00f6nceki Cavendish ve Gros Michel ile ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde tek k\u00fclt\u00fcr ile ekilirse, hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131n ba\u015fka bir t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn, de\u011fi\u015ftirilmi\u015f bitkileri de tehdit etmek i\u00e7in y\u00fckselmesi riski vard\u0131r.<\/p>\n
5 Horror Film Cliches (5 Korku Filmi Kli\u015fesi)<\/h2>\n
\nSince almost the beginning of cinema, we have had scary films. Of all the genres that exist, horror is perhaps one of the most conventional. Many horror films rely on specific plot devices, also called tropes, to make their audience frightened. When a trope is used too much, it can become a clich\u00e9. But when used well, it can really make us jump out of our skin. Here are some of the most used, and perhaps abused, clich\u00e9s in horror films.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Neredeyse sineman\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndan beri korku filmleri vard\u0131. Var olan t\u00fcm t\u00fcrler aras\u0131nda korku, belki de en geleneksel olanlardan biridir. Bir\u00e7ok korku filmi, izleyicilerini korkutmak i\u00e7in mecazi kurgu olarak da adland\u0131r\u0131lan spesifik olay \u00f6rg\u00fclerine g\u00fcvenir. Bir mecazi kurgu \u00e7ok kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda kli\u015fe haline gelebilir. Ancak iyi kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, yerimizden f\u0131rlamam\u0131za sebep olabilir. \u0130\u015fte korku filmlerinde en \u00e7ok kullan\u0131lan ve belki de suistimal edilen kli\u015felerden baz\u0131lar\u0131.<\/p>\n
\nNo matter what kind of house it is, the basement is a scary place in horror films. That’s usually where something is hiding or where the evil psychopath has hidden their tools. Basements are always dark and often damp. You can only reach them by a narrow staircase. And basements are always creepy, even when there isn’t anything down there.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Ne t\u00fcr bir ev olursa olsun, bodrum korku filmlerinde korkutucu bir yerdir. Genellikle bir \u015feylerin sakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 veya k\u00f6t\u00fc psikopatlar\u0131n aletlerini saklad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yer buras\u0131d\u0131r. Bodrumlar her zaman karanl\u0131k ve genellikle nemlidir. Bodruma sadece dar bir merdivenden ula\u015fabilirsiniz. Ve bodrumlar, a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da hi\u00e7bir \u015fey olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bile her zaman \u00fcrk\u00fct\u00fcc\u00fcd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n
\nIn older horror films, when protagonists were in desperation, it was difficult or impossible for them to call for help or call the police. Mobile phones have made that situation a bit less believable now. What’s the solution to maintain suspense? No phone coverage! If you’re a hero in a horror film, it’s almost certain that at a key moment, just when you absolutely need to call for help, you will not have any coverage at all. Or your phone battery will die just as you are making the call. Or both.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Eski korku filmlerinde, kahramanlar \u00e7aresizlik i\u00e7indeyken, yard\u0131m \u00e7a\u011f\u0131rmalar\u0131 ya da polisi aramak zor ya da imkans\u0131zd\u0131. Cep telefonlar\u0131 bu durumu \u015fimdi biraz daha az inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 hale getiriyor. Peki gerginli\u011fi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmenin \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc nedir? Telefonun \u00e7ekmemesi! Bir korku filminde ba\u015frolseniz, en \u00f6nemli anda, tam da yard\u0131m \u00e7a\u011f\u0131rman\u0131z gerekti\u011finde, hi\u00e7bir \u015fekilde telefonunuzun \u00e7ekmeyece\u011fi neredeyse kesindir. Veya tam aramay\u0131 yaparken telefonunuzun \u015farj\u0131 bitecektir. Ya da her ikisi de.<\/p>\n
\nHorror films love uninhabited places. This could be an abandoned hospital, a scary empty house or a ghost town. There’s something about lonely, empty places. What was it like when people lived there? Why did they leave? Maybe it’s also that they are so quiet, which can be very scary too. Of course, abandoned places are also handy for horror film directors in that it’s more believable that you will have no phone coverage there either.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Korku filmleri \u0131ss\u0131z yerleri sever. Bu terk edilmi\u015f bir hastane, korkun\u00e7 bir bo\u015f ev veya hayalet bir kasaba olabilir. Yaln\u0131z, bo\u015f yerler \u00e7ok ilgi \u00e7ekicidir. \u0130nsanlar orada ya\u015farken nas\u0131ld\u0131? Neden ayr\u0131ld\u0131lar? Belki de \u00e7ok sessiz olduklar\u0131ndand\u0131r, bu da \u00e7ok korkutucu olabilir. Tabii ki, terk edilmi\u015f yerler korku filmi y\u00f6netmenleri i\u00e7in de kullan\u0131\u015fl\u0131d\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc orada telefonunuzun \u00e7ekmemesi daha inand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\nThe hero has been driving for hours. It’s night-time and it’s beginning to rain. Suddenly he sees a person on the side of the road. Maybe the company will keep him awake? In horror films, giving anybody a ride is asking for trouble. The hero always does it, and it always ends badly.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Ba\u015frol saatlerce araba kullan\u0131yor. Gece oldu ve ya\u011fmur ya\u011fmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Birden yolun kenar\u0131nda bir adam g\u00f6r\u00fcr. Belki de e\u015flik etmek onu uyan\u0131k tutabilir? Korku filmlerinde birini araban\u0131za almak bela aramakt\u0131r. Ba\u015frol bunu her zaman yapar ve sonu her zaman k\u00f6t\u00fc biter.<\/p>\n
\nThis horror film clich\u00e9 was especially popular with horror films of the late 20th century. It starts with a group of teenagers all enjoying themselves, and it ends with everyone dead except one girl. At the beginning the girl is usually innocent, shy and not particularly strong. By the end, she has become the toughest and most resourceful person in the world. The last girl almost always wins in the end.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Bu korku filmi kli\u015fesi, \u00f6zellikle 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131ndaki korku filmlerinde pop\u00fclerdi. Bir grup gencin e\u011flenmesiyle ba\u015flar ve bir k\u0131z\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda herkesin \u00f6lmesiyle biter. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta k\u0131z genellikle masum, utanga\u00e7t\u0131r ve g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc de\u011fildir. Sonlara do\u011fru, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en sert ve en becerikli insan\u0131 olur. Sona kalan k\u0131z neredeyse her zaman sonunda kazan\u0131r.<\/p>\n
How Humans Evolved Language (\u0130nsanlar Dili Nas\u0131l Geli\u015ftirdi)<\/h2>\n
\nThanks to the field of linguistics we know much about the development of the 5,000 plus languages in existence today. We can describe their grammar and pronunciation and see how their spoken and written forms have changed over time. For example, we understand the origins of the Indo-European group of languages, which includes Norwegian, Hindi and English, and can trace them back to tribes in eastern Europe in about 3000 BC.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Dilbilim alan\u0131 sayesinde, bug\u00fcn var olan 5.000’den fazla dilin geli\u015fimi hakk\u0131nda \u00e7ok \u015fey biliyoruz. Dilbilgilerini ve telaffuzlar\u0131n\u0131 tan\u0131mlayabilir ve s\u00f6zl\u00fc ve yaz\u0131l\u0131 bi\u00e7imlerinin zaman i\u00e7inde nas\u0131l de\u011fi\u015fti\u011fini g\u00f6rebiliriz. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Norve\u00e7\u00e7e, Hint\u00e7e ve \u0130ngilizceyi i\u00e7eren Hint-Avrupa dil grubunun k\u00f6kenlerini anlayabiliyor ve onlar\u0131 M\u00d6 3000’lerde Do\u011fu Avrupa’daki kabilelere kadar takip edebiliyoruz.<\/p>\n
\nSo, we have mapped out a great deal of the history of language, but there are still areas we know little about. Experts are beginning to look to the field of evolutionary biology to find out how the human species developed to be able to use language. So far, there are far more questions and half-theories than answers.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Bu sayede dil tarihinin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc belirledik, ancak hakk\u0131nda hala \u00e7ok az \u015fey bildi\u011fimiz alanlar var. Uzmanlar, insan t\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn dili kullanabilmek i\u00e7in nas\u0131l geli\u015fti\u011fini \u00f6\u011frenmek i\u00e7in evrimsel biyoloji alan\u0131na bakmaya ba\u015fl\u0131yor. \u015eimdiye kadar, cevaplardan \u00e7ok daha fazla soru ve yar\u0131m teori var.<\/p>\n
\nWe know that human language is far more complex than that of even our nearest and most intelligent relatives like chimpanzees. We can express complex thoughts, convey subtle emotions and communicate about abstract concepts such as past and future. And we do this following a set of structural rules, known as grammar. Do only humans use an innate system of rules to govern the order of words? Perhaps not, as some research may suggest dolphins share this capability because they are able to recognise when these rules are broken.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
\u0130nsan dilinin \u015fempanzeler gibi en yak\u0131n ve en zeki akrabalar\u0131m\u0131zdan bile \u00e7ok daha karma\u015f\u0131k oldu\u011funu biliyoruz. Karma\u015f\u0131k d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleri ifade edebilir, ince duygular\u0131 aktarabilir ve ge\u00e7mi\u015f ve gelecek gibi soyut kavramlar hakk\u0131nda ileti\u015fim kurabiliriz. Ve bunu dilbilgisi olarak bilinen bir dizi yap\u0131sal kural\u0131 izleyerek yap\u0131yoruz. Kelimelerin s\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131 y\u00f6netmek i\u00e7in sadece insanlar do\u011fu\u015ftan gelen bir kurallar sistemi mi kullan\u0131yor? Belki de hay\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar yunuslar\u0131n bu yetene\u011fi payla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu kurallar\u0131n ne zaman kullan\u0131lmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 anlayabildiklerine i\u015faret ediyor.<\/p>\n
\nIf we want to know where our capability for complex language came from, we need to look at how our brains are different from other animals. This relates to more than just brain size; it is important what other things our brains can do and when and why they evolved that way. And for this there are very few physical clues; artefacts left by our ancestors don’t tell us what speech they were capable of making. One thing we can see in the remains of early humans, however, is the development of the mouth, throat and tongue. By about 100,000 years ago, humans had evolved the ability to create complex sounds. Before that, evolutionary biologists can only guess whether or not early humans communicated using more basic sounds.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Karma\u015f\u0131k dil yetene\u011fimizin nereden geldi\u011fini bilmek istiyorsak, beynimizin di\u011fer hayvanlardan nas\u0131l farkl\u0131 oldu\u011funa bakmam\u0131z gerekir. Bu sadece beyin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden \u00e7ok daha fazlas\u0131yla ilgili, beynimizin ba\u015fka neler yapabilece\u011fi, ne zaman ve neden bu \u015fekilde geli\u015fti\u011fi de \u00f6nemlidir. Ve bunun i\u00e7in \u00e7ok az fiziksel ipucu var; atalar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 eserler, bize hangi konu\u015fmay\u0131 yapabileceklerini g\u00f6stermiyor. Eski insanlar\u0131n kal\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131nda g\u00f6rebildi\u011fimiz \u015feylerin biri de a\u011f\u0131z, bo\u011faz ve dilin geli\u015fimidir. Yakla\u015f\u0131k 100.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce, insanlar karma\u015f\u0131k sesler yaratma yetene\u011fini geli\u015ftirmi\u015fti. Bundan \u00f6nce, evrimsel biyologlar, ilk insanlar\u0131n daha temel sesler kullanarak ileti\u015fim kurup kurmad\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair yaln\u0131zca tahmin \u00fcretebilirler.<\/p>\n
\nAnother question is, what is it about human brains that allowed language to evolve in a way that it did not in other primates? At some point, our brains became able to make our mouths produce vowel and consonant sounds, and we developed the capacity to invent words to name things around us. These were the basic ingredients for complex language. The next change would have been to put those words into sentences, similar to the ‘protolanguage’ children use when they first learn to speak. No one knows if the next step \u2013 adding grammar to signal past, present and future, for example, or plurals and relative clauses \u2013 required a further development in the human brain or was simply a response to our increasingly civilised way of living together.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Ba\u015fka bir soru, dilin di\u011fer primatlarda olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fekilde geli\u015fmesine izin veren insan beyninin fark\u0131 nedir? Bir noktada, beynimiz a\u011fz\u0131m\u0131za sesli ve \u00fcns\u00fcz sesler \u00e7\u0131karabilecek hale geldi ve etraf\u0131m\u0131zdaki \u015feyleri adland\u0131rmak i\u00e7in kelime icat etme kabiliyeti geli\u015ftirdik. Bunlar karma\u015f\u0131k dilin temel bile\u015fenleriydi. Bir sonraki de\u011fi\u015fiklik, bu kelimeleri, \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n konu\u015fmay\u0131 ilk \u00f6\u011frendiklerinde kulland\u0131klar\u0131 ‘\u00f6n-dil’e benzer \u015fekilde c\u00fcmlelere koymak olurdu. Bir sonraki ad\u0131m\u0131n \u2013 \u00f6rne\u011fin ge\u00e7mi\u015fi, \u015fimdiyi ve gelece\u011fi i\u015faret etmek i\u00e7in dilbilgisini veya \u00e7o\u011fullar\u0131 ve ilgili yan t\u00fcmceleri eklemenin \u2013 insan beyninde daha fazla geli\u015fmeyi gerektirip gerektirmedi\u011fini veya giderek medenile\u015fen birlikte ya\u015fama tarz\u0131m\u0131za bir yan\u0131t olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kimse bilmiyor.<\/p>\n
\nBetween 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, though, we start to see the evidence of early human civilisation, through cave paintings for example; no one knows the connection between this and language. Brains didn’t suddenly get bigger, yet humans did become more complex and more intelligent. Was it using language that caused their brains to develop? Or did their more complex brains start producing language?<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Yine de 100.000 ila 50.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce, \u00f6rne\u011fin ma\u011fara resimlerinde, erken insan uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n kan\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rmeye ba\u015fl\u0131yoruz; kimse bununla dil aras\u0131ndaki ba\u011flant\u0131y\u0131 bilmiyor. Beyinler birdenbire b\u00fcy\u00fcmedi, ancak insanlar daha karma\u015f\u0131k ve daha zeki hale geldi. Beyinlerinin geli\u015fmesine neden olan dili kullanmak m\u0131yd\u0131? Yoksa daha karma\u015f\u0131k beyinleri dil \u00fcretmeye mi ba\u015flad\u0131?<\/p>\n
\nMore questions lie in looking at the influence of genetics on brain and language development. Are there genes that mutated and gave us language ability? Researchers have found a gene mutation that occurred between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, which seems to have a connection with speaking and how our brains control our mouths and face. Monkeys have a similar gene, but it did not undergo this mutation. It’s too early to say how much influence genes have on language, but one day the answers might be found in our DNA.<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n
Geneti\u011fin beyin ve dil geli\u015fimi \u00fczerindeki etkisine bakmakta daha fazla soru var. Mutasyona u\u011frayan ve bize dil yetene\u011fi veren genler var m\u0131? Ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, 200.000 ila 100.000 y\u0131l \u00f6nce meydana gelen, konu\u015fmayla ve beynimizin a\u011fz\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 ve y\u00fcz\u00fcm\u00fcz\u00fc nas\u0131l kontrol etti\u011fiyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bir gen mutasyonu buldular. Maymunlar da benzer bir gene sahiptir, ancak bu mutasyona u\u011framam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Genlerin dil \u00fczerinde ne kadar etkisi oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek i\u00e7in hen\u00fcz \u00e7ok erken ama bir g\u00fcn cevaplar DNA’m\u0131zda bulunabilir.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce Metin \u00c7evirisinin \u00d6nemi<\/h2>\n
\u0130ngilizce metinleri anlamak ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta herkes i\u00e7in zordur. Ancak okuma ve anlama yetene\u011finizi geli\u015ftirmek i\u00e7in yapabilece\u011finiz bir\u00e7ok aktivite ve etkinlik vard\u0131r. Bunlardan birka\u00e7\u0131 kelime da\u011farc\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131z\u0131, dilbilginizi geli\u015ftirmek ve metinler \u00e7evirmektir. Metin \u00e7evirmek ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta g\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcze zor gelebilir. Ancak kendi seviyenizdeki metinleri \u00e7evirmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131zda bekledi\u011finizden daha kolay oldu\u011funu g\u00f6receksiniz.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce metin \u00e7evirmeye ba\u015flay\u0131nca \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmle mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na al\u0131\u015fmaya ba\u015flars\u0131n\u0131z. Bu sayede \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmleleri okurken anlars\u0131n\u0131z. \u0130lk okuyaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131z ve \u00e7evirece\u011finiz metinler basit oldu\u011fundan dolay\u0131 \u00e7ok zorlanmadan al\u0131\u015fabilirsiniz. \u0130ngilizce mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na al\u0131\u015farak t\u00fcm \u0130ngilizce yeteneklerinizi do\u011frudan geli\u015ftirebilirsiniz. Bundan dolay\u0131 \u0130ngilizce Metin \u00e7evirmek \u00e7ok ayarl\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce Metin \u00c7evirisi Nas\u0131l Yap\u0131l\u0131r?<\/strong><\/h2>\n
\u0130ngilizce metin \u00e7evirmek i\u00e7in \u00f6ncelikle metni bir kere tamamen okumal\u0131s\u0131n\u0131z. Bu sayede c\u00fcmlelere ve kelimeler a\u015fina olursunuz. Metni okuduktan sonra ilk olarak bilmedi\u011finiz kelimeleri \u00f6\u011frenmelisiniz. Ard\u0131ndan \u00e7eviri yapmaya ba\u015flamal\u0131s\u0131n\u0131z.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce metin \u00e7evirmek i\u00e7in \u00f6ncelikle \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmle \u00e7evirmeyi bilmelisiniz. \u0130ngilizce c\u00fcmle kurallar\u0131, T\u00fcrk\u00e7eye g\u00f6re tam tersidir. Bu y\u00fczden c\u00fcmleleri tersten \u00e7evirmelisiniz. BU mant\u0131\u011f\u0131 kavrad\u0131ktan sonra c\u00fcmle \u00e7evirmeye ba\u015flayabilirsiniz. \u00c7eviriye A1 A2 hikayelerinden ba\u015flars\u0131n\u0131z \u00e7ok rahat edersiniz.<\/p>\n
\u0130ngilizce Metin Okuman\u0131n Yararlar\u0131<\/strong><\/h2>\n
\u0130ngilizcenizi sadece tek bir y\u00f6ne odaklanarak geli\u015ftiremezsiniz. Bu y\u00fczden her yetene\u011finizi ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 geli\u015ftirmelisiniz. \u0130ngilizce dilbilgisi \u00f6\u011frendi\u011finiz gibi \u0130ngilizce kelimeler de \u00f6\u011frenmelisiniz. Bu yeteneklerinizi ayn\u0131 anda geli\u015ftirmenin en iyi yolu da \u0130ngilizce metinler okumakt\u0131r. Okudu\u011funuz hikayeler sayesinde hem dilbilgisi hem de kelime bilgisi olarak kendinizi geli\u015ftirirsiniz. Yeni c\u00fcmle yap\u0131lar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcrs\u00fcn\u00fcz, yeni kelimeler \u00f6\u011frenirsiniz, g\u00fcn i\u00e7inde kurulabilecek diyaloglara dair bilgiler edinirsiniz.<\/p>\n